5.Protection from noise

Individuals can take many simple steps to protect themselves from the harmful effects of noise pollution. If people must be around loud sounds, they can protect their ears with ear plugs or ear protectors. They can muffle sound by using acoustic ceiling tiles, draperies, carpets, and sound-absorbing furniture in their homes, offices, and schools. They can also buy quieter models of machines and let store owners and manufacturers know that they prefer quieter products. Individuals can also help their communities investigate noise pollution and develop regulations to reduce the problem locally.
Some communities have enacted anti-noise ordinances. New York City issues fines to people who run excessively noisy air conditioners, to street construction crews whose equipment is too loud, and to impatient drivers who honk their horns. Police in Redondo Beach, California, can remove large speakers from cars if the music can be heard more than 50 ft (15.2 m) away. In 1999, a judge in Fort Lupton, Colorado, began sentencing teenagers convicted of playing their stereos at high volumes to time spent listening to court-selected vocal artists.
Communities can also reduce noise by locating freeways far from residential neighborhoods, by reducing the speed on freeways and other high-speed roads, by requiring developers to plant trees and shrubbery as sound mufflers, and by requiring people to build houses and other structures with materials that help absorb sound.
Many engineers are aware of the need to reduce noise pollution, and some of them are busy devising new ways to solve the noise problem. In Japan, Yokohama Tire Company has introduced a new high-performance tire that gives a quieter ride. Korean engineers have developed an anti-noise system for computers that reduces a typical noise level of 30 decibels to a nearly undetectable 20. United States researchers have invented a new composite consisting of alternating layers of sound-absorbing foam and sound-containing vinyl that can be placed in machinery housings to reduce noise. At the Georgia Institute of Technology, an inventor has developed a "quiet curtain" for nursing home patients who cannot sleep that is made of noise-absorbing materials that can reduce noise by 12 decibels. In Germany, roads are paved with materials that reduce sound, tires are manufactured to whine less, and lawn mowers and other equipment are designed to operate quietly. Manufacturers in some Australian states must label the noise level of products such as chain saws and lawn mowers.
As the human population continues to increase, the amount of noise in our world will also grow as we crowd together with gadgets, machines, and vehicles. To help ease the impact of this increasing amount of noise, some companies are developing a new technology called anti-noise. Anti-noise works by emitting a sound that exactly matches the noise. When the sound waves from the anti-noise device meet the sound waves from the noise, they cancel each other out. In such a case, no sound waves reach our ears; we do not hear the noise. Anti-noise can work as a kind of muffler on a noisy engine, or it can be built into headphones to silence all approaching noise. Even if we cannot eliminate noise pollution, we may be able to use anti-noise devices to escape some of the damage that noise can cause.

4. Harmful Effects

On Human Being, Animal and Property: Noise has always been with the human civilization but it was never so obvious, so intense, so varied & so pervasive as it is seen in the last of this century. Noise pollution makes men more irritable. The effect of noise pollution is multifaceted & inter related. The effects of Noise Pollution on Human Being, Animal and property are as follows:
I It decreases the efficiency of a man:- Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency there are number of experiments which print out the fact that human efficiency increases with noise reduction. A study by Sinha & Sinha in India suggested that reducing industrial booths could improve the quality of their work. Thus human efficiency is related with noise.
II Lack of concentration:- For better quality of work there should be concentration , Noise causes lack of concentration. In big cities , mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in offices.
III Fatigue:- Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they have to give their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring
IV Abortion is caused: - There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy. Unpleasant sounds make a lady of irriative nature. Sudden Noise causes abortion in females.
V It causes Blood Pressure: - Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on the person’s peace of mind. The noises are recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating the already existing tensions of modern living. These tensions result in certain disease like blood pressure or mental illness etc.
VI Temporary of permanent Deafness:- The effect of noise on audition is well recognized. Mechanics , locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc. All have their hearing . Impairment as a result of noise at the place of work. Physictist, physicians & psychologists are of the view that continued exposure to noise level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe, Loud noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.
VII EFFECT ON VEGETATION Poor quality of Crops:- Now is well known to all that plants are similar to human being. They are also as sensitive as man. There should be cool & peaceful environment for their better growth. Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops in a pleasant atmosphere.
VIII EFFECT ON ANIMAL:- Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animal. Animal looses the control of its mind. They become dangerous.
IX EFFECT ON PROPERTY:- Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments. It creates waves which struck the walls and put the building in danger condition. It weakens the edifice of buildings.

3. Sources of Noise Pollution

1. Road Traffic Noise:- In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and exhaust system of autos , smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be augmented by narrow streets and tall buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic noise reverberates.

2. Air Craft Noise: - Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new dimension to community annoyance, as the nation seeks to improve its nap-of the- earth aircraft operations over national parks, wilderness areas , and other areas previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed national attention over recent years.

3. Noise from railroads: - The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and switching and shunting operation in rail yards can impact neighboring communities and railroad workers. For example, rail car retarders can produce a high frequency, high level screech that can reach peak levels of 120 dB at a distance of 100 feet, which translates to levels as high as 138, or 140 dB at the railroad worker’s ear.
4. Construction Noise:- The noise from the construction of highways , city streets , and buildings is a major contributor to the urban scene . Construction noise sources include pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up signals), and pavement breakers.

5. Noise in Industry: - Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise problems, neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans, motors, and compressors mounted on the outside of buildings Interior noise can also be transmitted to the community through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These interior noise sources have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise- induced hearing loss is unfortunately common.

6. Noise in building: - Apartment dwellers are often annoyed by noise in their homes, especially when the building is not well designed and constructed. In this case, internal building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings can reveal the soundof-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities from neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and other city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open or insufficiently glazed.

7. Noise from Consumer products:- Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners and some kitchen appliances have been and continue to be noisemakers, although their contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not very large.

2 Measurement:-

A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is at the threshold of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard, on the scale acc. To smith, 20 db is whisper, 40 db the noise in a quiet office . 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which sound becomes physically painful.
The Noise quantum of some of the cities in our country indicate their pitch in decibel in the nosiest areas of corresponding cities, e.g. Delhi- 80 db, Kolkata - 87,Bombay-85, Chennai-89 db etc.
These are the few examples of threshold decibels of noises made:

Threshold of hearing 0 dB
Motorcycle (30 feet 88 dB
Rustling leaves 20 dB
Food blender (3 feet) 90 dB
Quiet whisper (3 feet) 30 dB
Diesel truck (30 feet) 100dB
Quiet street 50 dB
Power mower (3 feet) 107 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Inside car 70 dB
Chainsaw (3 feet) 117 dB

Loud singing (3 feet) 75 dB
Amplified Rock and Roll (6 feet) 120 dB
Automobile (25 feet) 80 dB
Jet plane (100 feet) 130 dB

1.Definition of Noise Pollution

The present generation and the coming generations have to solve three grave problems, namely, population poverty and pollution if they have to survive. Pollution being the most dangerous problem likes cancer in which death is sure but slow. Environment pollution is assuming dangerous proportions all through the globe This is the gift of modern living, industrialization and urbanization. Unless timely action is taken we have a forbid and bleak future for the world.
The word noise is derived from the Latin term nausea. It has been defined as unwanted sound, a potential hazard to health and communication dumped into the environment with regard to the adverse effect it may have on unwilling ears.1
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. Sound, which pleases the listeners, is music and that which causes pain and annoyance is noise. At times, what is music for some can be noise for others2
Noise can be described as sound without agreeable musical quality or as an unwanted or undesired sound. Thus noise can be taken as a group of laud, non harmonious sounds or vibrations that are unpleasant and irritating to ear.

10.GROUNDWATER POLLUTION

Spillage, incorrect storage of chemicals or waste materials or unsuitable disposal activities can result in pollutants seeping through the soil, causing serious harm to groundwater – which is a vital source of drinking water. Chlorinated solvents are the most widespread and severe cause of groundwater pollution, and handling them requires special care. The Agencies have strong powers to take action relating to the storage, handling, use or disposal of certain dangerous substances posing a risk of contaminating groundwaters. The prior authorisation of the Agency is required before you dispose of wastes containing certain dangerous substances into or onto land, and advice on this is available from your local Agency office

9. AGRICULTURE

Agricultural activities have resulted in significant water pollution in the past, and continue to have the potential to cause such damage unless properly managed. Detailed guidance on preventing pollution from agricultural activities is available

8.CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION

Detailed guidance is available on construction and demolition . It is important to note that the prior approval of the Agency must be obtained where site de-watering might result in a discharge to controlled waters. Any discharge must be free from solids in suspension, oil or other polluting materials. Silt is a non-toxic pollutant and, in the absence of other contaminants, silty water may be disposed of by pumping to the foul sewer, a settlement tank or over a grassed area. However, if any other contaminant is present, you should consult the Agency on its disposal.

7.CONTINGENCY PLANS

Spillages and run-off water from fire-fighting may have the potential to cause enormous damage to controlledwaters .It is recommended that appropriate spill kits or absorbent materials are held on site. It is essential that staff know what to do in an emergency. An up-to-date drainage plan should be maintained, hazards identified and a contingency plan drawn up, giving advice on what action to take and who to inform. These plans should be displayed clearly and regular exercises undertaken.

6.OIL STORAGE AND PIPELINES

The storage of oil at industrial, commercial, institutional and institutional residential premises in England is to be the subject of new regulations due to be introduced in late 2000. Similar regulations for Wales and Scotland are under consideration. These will introduce statutory minimum storage standards. PPG2 - Reference 10 covers above ground oil storage, with the key points listed below;

a. Storage
Any oil storage tank and oil stored in drums should be sited on an impervious base within an oil-tight bund with no drainage outlet. All fill pipes, draw pipes and sight gauges should be enclosed within the bund, and the tank vent pipe should be directed downwards into it. Advice is available on the construction of bund walls and the storage and disposal of used oils .

b.Pipelines
Site pipelines in an accessible position above the ground where possible, as underground tanks and pipelines may be subject to damage and corrosion. Where a pipeline has to be laid underground, it should be corrosion resistant and placed in a protective sleeve or a duct with open grating covers for inspection purposes, and should be tested regularly. Underground pipeline connections should be minimised and, where used, should have access points for
inspection. Underground tanks and pipelines may be subject to special restrictions where there is a risk to groundwaters.

5.DELIVERIES AND SECURITY

a. Deliver ies
Special care should be taken during deliveries, particularly when hazardous materials are involved. Deliveries should be supervised at all times, tanks and containers should be labelled with the nature and volume of their contents, and the levels should be checked before delivery to prevent overfilling.

b. Delivery areas
Where possible, loading and unloading areas should be roofed and drained to the foul sewer. If not, they should be clearly marked and isolated from the surface water drainage system, either by catch-pits or sumps with isolating valves. Cut-off valves in the drainage system and raised kerb surrounds may be needed. Delivery pipes should be fitted with automatic cut-off valves to prevent overfilling. You are recommended to consult with the Agency.

c. Security
Vandalism and theft are frequent causes of pollution. Lockable valves should be fitted on all storage tanks, fences should be secure, and doors and gates kept locked. Where possible, materials should be stored under cover and potential pollutants should be transferred into safe storage without delay.

4.WASTE STORAGE AND DISPOSAL

a. Reduce, re-use and recycle
Methods to reduce the amount of waste generated in the first place, together with the re-use and recycling of
wastes, must be considered. There is scope for significant savings, as the costs of raw materials and waste disposal
continue to rise. Advice on waste minimisation and local initiatives can be obtained from your nearest Agency office.
Independent advice on this and on any other environmental problem is available free through the Envirowise
Helpline on 0800 585794.
b. Duty of Care and waste leg islation
To prevent fly-tipping, producers of waste must ensure that it remains under their control and is passed on only to
a registered waste carrier and is accompanied by a full description. Some wastes, such as used mineral oil, are subject
to the Special Waste Regulations, which impose additional controls on movement and disposal
Contact your local Agency office for further advice.
c. Storage
All wastes must be stored in designated areas that are isolated from surface drains and bunded to contain any
spillages. Rubbish compactors should be covered to prevent the build-up of contaminated rainwater and drained
to the foul sewer to prevent polluting liquid entering the surface water drains. Compactor hydraulics should be
maintained in good order.

3. SITE DRAINAGE

a. Drainage
Most existing sites will have two types of drain. Surface water drains, including land drains and most road drains, should carry only uncontaminated rainwater, as they will lead to a local river, stream or soakaway. The foul water
drain is designed to carry contaminated waste water safely to a storage lagoon, treatment system or sewage works for treatment. In the case of an isolated house, or a small community biological treatment plant, care should be taken not to overload this by disposing of disinfectant or grease down the foul drain .agreement from the local sewerage undertaker is required before you connect to the public foul water system.Where significant work is being undertaken on an existing site or a new development, the Agencies encourage the
consideration of an alternative approach for surface drainage, which uses a combination of techniques known collectively as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS). This approach has significant environmental benefits and may
also have lower installation costs. See Reference 6 for further details.

b. Surface water treatment
Surface water can be contaminated with silt, heavy metals, chemicals and oil, which can be damaging in watercourses and groundwater. In many cases, it will require treatment by controlling the pollution at its source or just before the discharge point. SuDS may provide a suitable solution . In areas where there is a
high risk of oil pollution, it may be necessary to install an oil separator to protect the surface water system and reduce the risk of pollution.

c. Wrong connections
Wrongly connected effluents can cause severe pollution problems, which can be difficult to remedy. Sources of dirty water, such as sinks and toilets, should be connected to the foul sewer and the nearest drain. Manhole covers and gullies should be clearly marked, by colour coding, with red for foul and blue for surface water, and site drainage plans should be readily accessible.

d. Garage forecourts and fuel delivery areas
Because of the potential for pollution from these areas, oil separation is required. Effluent resulting from the cleaning of forecourts must not be discharged to surface water drains, watercourses or soakaways.

e. Cleaning activities
Wash waters from mobile pressure washers should not be discharged to surface water drains, watercourses or soakaways. Even if described as bio-degradable, detergents are not suitable for discharge to surface drains, so such activities should be carried out in designated areas draining to the foul sewer (subject to the approval of the local
sewerage undertaker). Alternatively, closed loop vehicle wash recycling systems are available.

f . Sewage disposal
All foul sewage should pass to the local foul sewer if possible. If not, other arrangements should be discussed with your local Agency office Most alternatives will normally require the formal consent of the Agency.

g. Chemical storage areas
Drainage from such areas presents special problems and you should consult fully with your local Agency office to minimise the pollution risks.

2.LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The Agencies are responsible for protecting “controlled waters” from pollution, for preventing waste management
from polluting the environment, causing harm to human health and detriment to local amenity and for regulating
radioactive substances (except in Northern Ireland). The release of the most seriously polluting substances to water,
land or air from prescribed processes may be subject to additional regulation under the system of Integrated
Pollution Control introduced by the Environmental Protection Act 1990.
“Controlled waters” include all watercourses, lakes, lochs, canals, coastal waters and water contained in
underground strata (or “groundwater”), and it is an offence to pollute such waters - deliberately or accidentally. In
addition, the formal consent of the Agency is required for many discharges to controlled waters, including direct
discharges and discharges to soakaways. Such consents are granted subject to conditions, and are not issued
automatically.
Any other waste produced on a site will be subject to the Duty of Care (Reference 2) and may also be subject to
control under the Waste Management Licensing Regulations 1994. In addition, certain wastes are defined as
“Special Wastes” and are subject to more rigorous controls (Reference 3). Advice is available from the Agencies.
P O L L U T I O N
P R E V E N T I O N
G U I D E L I N E S
GENERAL GUIDE TO THE
PREVENTION OF POLLUTION:
PPG1
The Agencies are also responsible for implementing the legislation on packaging, which affects companies with an
annual turnover above £2 million and handling more than 50 tonnes of packaging per year (see Reference 4).
All discharges to the foul sewer (see 4a) require authorisation by the sewerage undertaker and may be subject to
the terms and conditions of a trade effluent consent.

1. INTRODUCTION on Prevention on Pollution

Businesses and individuals are responsible for complying with environmental regulations and for preventing
pollution of air, land and water. Many thousands of pollution incidents occur each year, originating from factories,
farms, transport activities and even homes. Each incident is an offence and can result in prosecution as well as
environmental damage. However, most cases are avoidable, given careful planning of operations, responsible waste
management and suitable facilities to reduce the risk of spillage - along with simple precautions to deal with any
spillages, in case they occur.
Responsible waste management can ensure that you comply with the relevant regulations, while minimising waste
can reduce the amount of waste produced, which in turn cuts the risk of environmental damage and the costs of
waste disposal.
The series of Pollution Prevention Guidance notes (known as PPGs), of which this is the first, provides practical advice
that will help you to avoid causing pollution, minimise waste and comply with the requirements of the law. Often
the necessary measures cost little, especially if you think about them early on, for example at the design stage, and
can save you money, too. In contrast, the fines for failing to comply with the relevant regulations or the costs of
cleaning up pollution (which are recovered from the polluter wherever possible) can be very high.
The guidance notes cover either a topic of relevance to many sectors, such as oil storage or the use of pressure
washers, or are specific to a particular type of site, such as schools, vehicle-servicing garages or hospitals. In general,
they are cross-referenced to reduce repetition; the guidance on hospitals, for example, refers to the guidance on oil
storage and does not repeat it in detail. You may therefore need several different guidance notes for any one site or
operation. Additional guidance on complying with environmental regulations is available

EXAMPLES

LOOPING—large-scale turbulent eddies cause sizable parcels of air, together with portions of the plume, to deviate from a straight downwind direction
(figure available in print form)B. CONING—the shape of the plume is commonly vertically symmetrical about what is call the plume line.
C. FANNING—suppressed vertical mixing, but not horizonal mixing entirely causes the plume to spread only parallel to the ground and appears to take on the shape of a fan as seen from below.
D. LOFTING—the lapse rate in the upper portion of the plume is unstable and in the lower it is stable. Mixing is vigorous in the upward direction.
E. FUMIGATION—poses a potentially serious air pollution situation. Here the plume is released just under an elevated inversion layer. When the low-level unstable lapse rate reaches the plume, the effluent suddenly mixes downward toward the ground.

In the effluent from a smelter in a valley is trapped in a radiational inversion, diffusing neither upward or downward, but drifting down the valley, the ground level concentration will be highest. The daily uniform warming of the valley floor erodes the inversion from beneath, and when the layer containing pollutants becomes unstable widespread fumigation occurs along a great length of the valley. SEE DIAGRAM BELOW.

VIII. PLUMES OF SMOKESTACKS

A plume from an elevated source such as a tall exhaust stack mixes vertically and horizontally with ambient air as it drifts downwind, Vertical mixing is determined largely by the degree of instability of the lower troposphere. This depends upon the temperature profile. Horizontal mixture can also be influenced indirectly by the elapse rate. For a movement of air in the vertical direction cannot proceed without horizontal movement somewhere.

VIII. PLUMES OF SMOKESTACKS

A plume from an elevated source such as a tall exhaust stack mixes vertically and horizontally with ambient air as it drifts downwind, Vertical mixing is determined largely by the degree of instability of the lower troposphere. This depends upon the temperature profile. Horizontal mixture can also be influenced indirectly by the elapse rate. For a movement of air in the vertical direction cannot proceed without horizontal movement somewhere.

VII. ALTITUDE

The temperature of the atmosphere is not uniform, but decreases with altitude up to 20 kilometers where it is found to be only 220°K. At altitudes above 20 km, the temperature is observed to increase with altitude as a result of the absorption of solar radiation by ozone in the upper atmosphere. At much higher altitudes the temperature decreases again. Any mountain climber knows there is a decrease of air density with altitude. At the highest permanently inhabited village in the Peruvian Andes, located at an altitude of 5.3 km, the air density is about half of the sea level density. In adapting to these conditions the inhabitants have developed unusually large lung capacities. Because of the exponential decreased of density with altitude, most of the atmospheric mass is beneath an altitude of 33 km, about three times the altitude of Mt. Everest.

VI. EFFECTS OF AIRPLANES

EFFECTS OF AIRPLANES The jet airplane has revolutionized travel since about 1960. It has brought people and cultures closer together. It has created environmental problems. Harmful chemicals sift down from the smoky trails of low-flying jets. The scream of jet engines is constantly heard by people who live near big-city airports. Jet aircraft, particularly the supersonic transport (SST) could engender stratospheric air pollution with consequent changes in climate. Jet exhaust contains water, CO2 oxides of nitrogen, and particulate matter. It is speculative just how harmful these pollutants can be. For example, it is estimated that a fleet of five hundred SST’s over a period of years could increase the water content of the stratosphere by 50 to 100 percent, which could result in a rise in average. Temperature of the surface of the earth of about 0.2 Celsius degrees and could cause destruction of some of the stratospheric ozone that protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation.
It is a fact that many people prefer air travel rather than ground or water transportation. This has prompted a critical look at safety and quality control. Contributions to air pollution is a chief concern because of this revolutionary change in public transportation in the United States and around the world. The government must also establish standards for exhaust emissions. Thus manufacturers are forced to develop low-pollutant engines. Contact with government agencies will give a greater insight of this subject. Information on how to contact environmental groups in New England can be found on the reference page of this unit.
This graph shows the dramatic increases in the air traffic since 1950, including passenger miles of U.S. airlines. (Aviation Facts and Figures 1953. Washington, DC: Lincoln Press.)
An airplane needs an energy supply and an engine, for propulsion, that will function whenever they are needed. These internal combustion engines have discharged pollutants into the air. The combustion exhaust must be dealt with. Modification of air/fuel ratios can provide a partial solution. The problem of air pollution from airplanes involve a complex set of interactions among technical, social, and economic factors.
Emission from jet aircraft, particularly on landing and take-offs, are a source of bitter complaints from nearby residents. In a few airports visibility has been dangerously restricted by particulate emissions and photochemical smog. Airlines have a considerable expense in cleaning the obnoxious odors of unburned fuel from aircraft air conditioning systems. Most pilots prefer exhaust plumes, because aircrafts are made more visible.
In a jet engine, air enters through the front and is compressed by rotating vanes as it is forced into combustion chambers arranged around the circumference. Fuel is steadily sprayed into the leading end of each chamber where it ignites in the not compressed air, burns and causes the air to expand. The burning gases push toward the rear, striking turbine blades whose rotation drives the compressor they are connected to. The burning gases are further compressed at the exhaust nozzle to provide a high-velocity exhaust. This provides forward thrust to the aircraft.
(figures available in print form)Reliable data on engine exhausts are difficult to obtain because engines operate under many different conditions. Engine design plays an important role in reducing pollution emissions. One engine may emit more than a comparable engine. Older aircraft have experienced a substantial reduction in hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and particulate emission because the fuel is more completely burned with the installation of “clean burner cans”.2

V. COST OF TREATING THE SICK

The high cost of air pollution is strikingly illustrated in its damaging effects on the human body. Besides the unpleasantness of irritated eyes and scratchy throats, it presents a threat to the respiratory tract, contributing to a number of serious diseases. In both the United States and Europe, episodes of high levels of air pollution were implicated in a large number of deaths.

IV. DAMAGES

Throughout the world the damage cause by air pollution is enormous. In money alone it represents a loss of billions of dollars each year. Many flower and vegetable crops suffer ill effects from air pollution caused by exhaust gases. Trees have been killed by pollution. Cattle have been poisoned. Air pollution causes rubber tires on automobiles to crack and become porous. Fine buildings become shabby, their walls blackened with soot as a result of the pollution that has settled on building stones and surfaces for years.

III. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON THE LUNGS

One study by Ishikawa et al. provided evidence that air pollution may cause or contribute to emphysema. A comparison was made of autopsy lung material from residents of two cities, Winnipeg Manitoba and St. Louis, Missouri. The Canadian city has a relatively low level of air pollution, whereas the American city characteristicly has high levels of industrial contaminants. Emphysema was found to be seven times more common in St. Louis for ages 20-49 and twice as common for ages over 60.1 Lets look at a comparison. Smoking was significant but not an isolated factor
(figure available in print form)A 1960-66 post mortem examination of lungs of 300 residents of St. Louis, Missouri, and an equal number from Winnipeg, Canada. The subjects were matched by sex, occupation, socio-economic status, length of residence, smoking habits, and age at death.

II. TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION

Particulates of both natural and human origin also cause pollution. Smoke both natural from fires and human activities cause from industries and other sources are major and cause much damage . The chemicals that are most trouble-some in air pollution are formed in the atmosphere by gases. The pollutant introduced into the atmosphere in the largest quantities by human activity is carbon monoxide. It is the product of incomplete combustion and the largest contribution comes from exhaust. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, with the formula CO.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also a product of combustion of fossil fuels. It is a minor constituent of natural air (about 0.03%), but the increased use of fossil fuels may cause an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The gases given off by engine exhaust are the oxides of nitrogen and the unburned hydrocarbons. The energy that causes these gases to react to form new compounds, comes from the sun. This reaction is called a photochemical reaction. The “air” that is exhausted from diesel engines is also too poor to breathe, although it contains more oxygen per cubic foot, but more particles.
Ozone is a chemically reactive substance (03) that is sometimes used to deodorizing exhausts by oxiding them to less objectionable odorous products before they are released to the atmosphere.
Industrial or gray smog is considered the most serious type of air pollution. Smoke and oxides of that are released by burning coal and oil containing minor amounts of sulfur is the cause.
The oxides of sulfur form sulfuric acid in the atmosphere which is both toxic to life and damaging to many materials. The smoke gives the air a gray color.
Industrial smog has been known to cause air pollution disasters. One of the worst occurred in London in December of 1952. Five days of stagnant air brought about high pressure systems caused between 3,500 and 4,000 deaths. In Donora, Pennsylvania 20 died and 6,000 became ill in 1948 because of a similar instance.
Photochemical smog also know as brown smog is largely caused by exhaust gases. It is common in warm cities in dry areas with lots of sunshine, such as Los Angeles, Denver, and Salt Lake City. This type of smog can obscure vision, cause plant damage, and irritate eyes.

I. INTRODUCTION OF CAUSES AND AFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION

Children learn in the earliest science experience that problem-solving is an essential part of the learning process. Problems probe one’s depth of understanding. Students should be stimulated to delve into areas that are not explicitly covered by this unit. While concentrating on the physical reasoning of air pollution, students should be able to develop skills in reading, language, mathematics, science, and social studies. This unit will be helpful to the self-contained classroom teacher as well as the departmentalized subject teacher. It is geared toward the middle school student from grades five through eight. The time span would vary according to the depth desired by individual teachers. A recommended period of four to eight weeks would allow student from below average range to be successful. Students will be able to: 1. CLASSIFY AIR POLLUTANTS
2. EXPLORE THE ADVERSE EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
3. DETERMINE THE EFFECTS OF SMOKESTACKS
4. DETERMINE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL ON POLLUTION
5. UNDERSTAND THE MAIN IDEA OF A PARAGRAPH
6. READ FOR HIGH COMPREHENSION AND SUPPORTING IDEAS
7. INTERPRET INFORMATION FROM GRAPHS AND CHARTS
8. USE PICTURES TO SUPPORT MAIN IDEAS OF A SUBJECT 9. USE THE NEWSPAPER TO STUDY POLLUTION PROBLEMS IN THEIR OWN ENVIRONMENT Pollution has become a major problem. It is not a future risk. Pollution is killing and destroying the health of people right now. It is impossible to escape. We have become so accustomed to low levels of exposure that it is hardly noticed.
Eliminating pollution from the environment has not proved as easy as eliminating it from the pages of a book. Industry is now spending several billion dollars a year on pollution control.
The first problem in understanding air pollution is to decide what is and what is not an air pollutant. Many of the things generally considered pollutants are present in the natural air. The amount of a substance locally present in the air is clearly important in defining a pollutant. Also the amount of harm or inconvenience caused by the substance and how long it remains in the atmosphere. These three factors are known as the three T’s (tonnage, toxicity, and time in the atmosphere).
A great deal of power is needed to run the factories of modern industrial nations. Automobiles, trains, planes, and buses need power too. Nearly all of this power is produced in the same way—by burning fuels. The burning produces wastes. Some of the wastes get into the air, causing air pollution. The eventual fate of air pollution is to be wasted out of air.
A smokestack with a billowing black plume, for years the proud symbol of America’s industrial wealth and technological prowess, has in the last decade acquired another meaning. The puffing smokestack has come to signify the achilles heel, rather than its strength.

Air Pollution
This is an excerpt from the paper... The basic types and sources of airborne pollutants are briefly discussed. This is followed by analysis of the direct effects (primarily health-related) of air pollution on human beings and discussion of indirect effects--including destruction of the ozone layer, and the many effects of global warming. Responses to air pollution are analyzed in terms of the slow development of regulation. The final section discusses future approaches to the air pollution problem.
Air pollution is a major threat to humanity. Not only does it directly threaten individual health and well-being, it also threatens the rest of the environment on which humanity depends for its existence. The threat is universal and the effects of air pollution range from increased cases of various diseases to global warming. Since the introduction of the extensive use of fossil fuels during the Industrial Revolution, the air pollution problem has increased steadily. Other types of industrial emissions, enormous increases in automobile exhausts, and domestic use of various substances have added greatly to the emergency. Efforts to meet the crisis have often been undermined by misinformation and indifference. The central focus of this paper is the effects that air pollution has, or will have, on human societies. A review of the sources and types of air pollution is followed by a detailed examination of the health, quality-of-life, and environmental effects of the air pollution cris
. . .ion increases global warming and crop failure increases hunger and poverty (Moeller, 1992, p. 13). The potential for global warming, the "greenhouse effect," contains even more types of indirect effects for humanity. The sun's rays warm the earth and make life possible. Two-thirds of these rays are absorbed by the planet, while another third are reflected back into space. But the atmosphere of earth contains "carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs" that trap some of the reflected heat and warm the planet--like a greenhouse (Vogel, 1995, p. 27). All these gases occur naturally, except CFCs, but the increase in air pollution over the last 50 years has increased the concentration of the gases and, scientists theorize, increased global temperature by trapping more of the sun's energy on earth. Deforestation and the use of fossil fuels increased carbon dioxide, increased agriculture raised world levels of methane by 8%, and industrial use of CFCs put them into the atmosphere for the first time in the twentieth century. The effect of this pollution on world temperature change is not certain. But scientists are certain that global temperature has risen 0.5_ Celsius during the last century, and they believe . . . Some common words found in the essay are:Romm Ervin, Goodstein Hodges, Ultraviolet UV, Nicholls Gregory, El Nino, Pollution Human, Air Pollution, Air Act, CAA Amendments, Agency EPA, air pollution, ervin 1996, global warming, romm ervin 1996, romm ervin, effects air, effects air pollution, schweitzer 1991, goodstein hodges 1997, breath 1994, moeller 1992, ozone layer, deep breath, deep breath 1994, piasecki asmus 1990,
Air Pollution
This is an excerpt from the paper... The basic types and sources of airborne pollutants are briefly discussed. This is followed by analysis of the direct effects (primarily health-related) of air pollution on human beings and discussion of indirect effects--including destruction of the ozone layer, and the many effects of global warming. Responses to air pollution are analyzed in terms of the slow development of regulation. The final section discusses future approaches to the air pollution problem.
Air pollution is a major threat to humanity. Not only does it directly threaten individual health and well-being, it also threatens the rest of the environment on which humanity depends for its existence. The threat is universal and the effects of air pollution range from increased cases of various diseases to global warming. Since the introduction of the extensive use of fossil fuels during the Industrial Revolution, the air pollution problem has increased steadily. Other types of industrial emissions, enormous increases in automobile exhausts, and domestic use of various substances have added greatly to the emergency. Efforts to meet the crisis have often been undermined by misinformation and indifference. The central focus of this paper is the effects that air pollution has, or will have, on human societies. A review of the sources and types of air pollution is followed by a detailed examination of the health, quality-of-life, and environmental effects of the air pollution cris
. . .ion increases global warming and crop failure increases hunger and poverty (Moeller, 1992, p. 13). The potential for global warming, the "greenhouse effect," contains even more types of indirect effects for humanity. The sun's rays warm the earth and make life possible. Two-thirds of these rays are absorbed by the planet, while another third are reflected back into space. But the atmosphere of earth contains "carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs" that trap some of the reflected heat and warm the planet--like a greenhouse (Vogel, 1995, p. 27). All these gases occur naturally, except CFCs, but the increase in air pollution over the last 50 years has increased the concentration of the gases and, scientists theorize, increased global temperature by trapping more of the sun's energy on earth. Deforestation and the use of fossil fuels increased carbon dioxide, increased agriculture raised world levels of methane by 8%, and industrial use of CFCs put them into the atmosphere for the first time in the twentieth century. The effect of this pollution on world temperature change is not certain. But scientists are certain that global temperature has risen 0.5_ Celsius during the last century, and they believe . . . Some common words found in the essay are:Romm Ervin, Goodstein Hodges, Ultraviolet UV, Nicholls Gregory, El Nino, Pollution Human, Air Pollution, Air Act, CAA Amendments, Agency EPA, air pollution, ervin 1996, global warming, romm ervin 1996, romm ervin, effects air, effects air pollution, schweitzer 1991, goodstein hodges 1997, breath 1994, moeller 1992, ozone layer, deep breath, deep breath 1994, piasecki asmus 1990,

Society and Environment - Study Notes

Explain in brief some of the major aspects of development.
Ans: Development is a total transformation of society and a movement in consciously chosen direction. There is no straight and linear progress from traditional to modern society, and neither is this transition smooth.
Development is a complex one and involves several aspects:
(1) Political development.
(2) Social development.
(3) Economic development

(4.) Intellectual development.

(1) Political development .: The first requirement of political development is a high degree of role of specialization (and differentiation) of political institutions and the growth of communication media. Political parties, trade unions, religious organizations, pressure groups and other similar organizations represent functional differentiation. In the second place, there is greater emphasis on rational, scientific and secular techniques for decision making. The developed system acquires an impersonal character in which the law becomes more important than the whims of men in power.

(2) Social development. When a traditional society is developed, there is a marked shifting of population from rural areas to urban centers under the impact of industrialization, which is one of the main agents of development In addition to migration to cities and towns, the growth of technology gradually reduces the percentage of the population engaged in agriculture. Social development brings about a marked change in the outlook and behavior of social groups which are characterized by the functions they perform rather than by their caste, language and other such factors, With the growth of social development, the individual finds himself in a wider world of freedom in which there are fewer restrictions on his ability to take decision affecting his life. He is free to choose his own career rather than have it determined on the basis of his caster

(3) Economic Development
Economic development also known as "economic growth" covers many aspects of social life. In the first place, it involves the systematic application of science and technology to the processes of production and distribution of goods and services. Secondly, it compels increasing use of inanimate sources of energy in contrast to the use of human or animal energy in traditional societies. This change in the pattern of energy consumption can only be sustained by a evolution in the consumption patterns of the masses demanding diversification of production in response to varied consumer needs. Diversified consumer needs lead to a high degree of specialization in production techniques and labor skills. Rationality in economic decisions (in determining the location of industry, for example) results in increased mobility of labor and emergence of a vast variety of market processor.

(4.) Intellectual development. : Development cannot be sustained for long in any society without a corresponding and self-sustaining intellectual development characterized by constantly increasing knowledge. This involves the existence of adequate number of fact-finding and data-processing agencies, statistical units, Research and development laboratories, universities and similar institutions. Intellectual development implies the existence of intellectual elites who play a key role in sustaining the growth of technology. Intellectual development leads, in all political systems, to greater emphasis on secularism and on secularization of the process of government and bureaucracy'. It also leads to an increasing emphasis on strengthening the material basis of life.

• List the impediments to development. Explain these in brief.
Ans: There are several impediments to development of a traditional society. Some of the obstacles are:
(1) Lack of skills.
(2) Rigid administrative system.
(3) Impatience for rapid development.
(4) Passion for quantitative expansion.
(5) Premature politicization.
(6) Strain on law and order resources.
(7) Rapid growth of population.

(1) Lack of skills: The developing countries are usually weak in the skills required for development. The real problem in training personnel for development programs lies not in unparting information to them, but in helping them to develop the required skills. It is necessary, to give field workers and administrators more freedom to experiment and to try new approaches; but this is precisely where the Indian programs suffer.

(2)Rigid Administrative System: In India arid in many other Commonwealth countries, the administrative system inherited from the British rule leaves little room for freedom to experiment. The inherited bureaucracy with its outmoded procedures of work and personal attitudes, inadequate delegation at all levels, too formal supervision of field workers and poor morale provide a major impediment. f3J Impatience for Rapid Development It arises from the belief that a country must embark on all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to symbolic expenditure on big projects to convince the masses and the outside world of the country's determination to become a modern nation in the shortest possible period of time. Many poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the basic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high percentage of their population.

(3) Impatience for rapid development. It arises from the belief that a country must embark on all areas of development at one time. This has led, among other things, to symbolic expenditure on big projects to convince the masses and the outside world of the country's determination to become a modern nation in the shortest possible period of time. Many poor countries have spent huge money on nuclear research even though the basic amenities of life remain unprovided for a high percentage of their population.

(4) Passion for Quantitative Expansion Another obstacle arises from the passion for a rapid quantitative expansion without attention to quality. Apart from community development, education has very rapidly expanded in India since independence and new universities and colleges have mushroomed under local pressure. The result of this expansion has been pumping into the society a vast army of unemployed graduates.

(5) Premature Politicization : The political leadership in developing countries has a marked tendency to politicize the mass prematurely. The large number of students and unemployed youths, often recruited by various political parties, contribute to the restlessness of the political process.

(6) Strain on Low and Order Resources : Politicization of the mass results in considerable strain on the law and order resources of the state. The leadership in India has done very little since independence for rehabilitating the police in the popular mind as protectors of the law. Attitude formed in the popular mind towards police in the era of our freedom struggle has not yet died but has produced a certain ambivalence towards the police. As a result, investment in improvement and strengthening of the police department has appeared to our leadership as being in some way contrary to the spirit of democratic welfare.

(7) Rapid Growth of Population: Rapidly growing population is one of the major impediments to the development of a traditional society. Rapid population growth usually results from the improvement in the general conditions of the mass, better health-care facility and decline in morality. A high rate of population growth offsets the economic growth of a country. This leads to frustration, social tension and mass violence